Diabetes:

• Glycated Hemoglobin (A1c) Test:

  • Procedure: A simple blood test that measures the percentage of hemoglobin with glucose attached over the past two to three months.
  • Normal Range: Below 5.7%
  • Indications: Monitoring long-term blood glucose control in individuals with diabetes.
  • Interpretation: Higher levels indicate poorer blood sugar control over an extended period.

• Fasting Blood Sugar Test:

  • Procedure: Measures blood glucose levels after an overnight fast.
  • Normal Range: Below 100 mg/dL
  • Indications: Screening for diabetes or assessing overall blood sugar levels.
  • Interpretation: Elevated levels may suggest impaired glucose metabolism.

• Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT):

  • Procedure: After fasting, a glucose solution is ingested, and blood sugar levels are measured at intervals.
  • Normal Range: A two-hour blood sugar level below 140 mg/dL.
  • Indications: Confirming diabetes diagnosis or assessing glucose tolerance.
  • Interpretation: Elevated levels may indicate impaired glucose tolerance or diabetes.

Heart Disease:

• Cholesterol Blood Test:

  • Procedure: Measures total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and triglycerides in a blood sample.
  • Normal Range: Total cholesterol below 200 mg/dL, LDL cholesterol below 100 mg/dL, HDL cholesterol above 40 mg/dL for men and 50 mg/dL for women.
  • Indications: Assessing cardiovascular risk.
  • Interpretation: Abnormal lipid levels may contribute to atherosclerosis and heart disease.

• Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG):

  • Procedure: Electrodes are placed on the skin to record the heart’s electrical activity.
  • Normal Result: Regular rhythm and no signs of ischemia.
  • Indications: Assessing heart rhythm, detecting abnormalities.
  • Interpretation: Irregularities may indicate heart conditions such as arrhythmias.

• Stress Test:

  • Procedure: Monitors heart function during exercise or induced stress, often on a treadmill or with medication.
  • Normal Result: No abnormal changes in heart rate or rhythm during stress.
  • Indications: Evaluating cardiovascular function under stress conditions.
  • Interpretation: Abnormal responses may suggest coronary artery disease.

Cancer:

• Mammogram:

  • Procedure: X-ray imaging of breast tissue to detect abnormalities.
  • Normal Result: No masses or calcifications.
  • Indications: Breast cancer screening in asymptomatic individuals.
  • Interpretation: Detected abnormalities may require further investigation.

• Colonoscopy:

  • Procedure: A flexible tube is inserted to examine the colon, and abnormalities like polyps can be removed.
  • Normal Result: Absence of abnormal growths.
  • Indications: Screening for colorectal cancer or investigation of gastrointestinal symptoms.
  • Interpretation: Polyps or abnormal tissue may require biopsy or removal.

• Pap Smear:

  • Procedure: Collection of cervical cells for examination under a microscope.
  • Normal Result: No abnormal cellular changes.
  • Indications: Screening for cervical cancer in women.
  • Interpretation: Abnormal cells may indicate precancerous or cancerous changes.

Chronic Respiratory Diseases (e.g., COPD):

• Spirometry:

  • Procedure: Measures lung capacity and airflow by having the individual breathe into a device.
  • Normal Result: Normal forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) for age and gender.
  • Indications: Assessing lung function, diagnosing respiratory conditions.
  • Interpretation: Reduced lung function may indicate conditions like COPD.

• Chest X-ray:

  • Procedure: Imaging of the chest to identify lung abnormalities.
  • Normal Result: Clear lung fields without signs of inflammation.
  • Indications: Investigating respiratory symptoms, screening for lung conditions.
  • Interpretation: Abnormalities may suggest lung diseases or infections.

Chronic Kidney Disease:

• Blood Pressure Measurement:

  • Procedure: Regular monitoring of blood pressure, with appropriate cuff size and technique.
  • Normal Range: Below 120/80 mm Hg is considered normal.
  • Indications: Monitoring hypertension, a common cause of kidney damage.
  • Interpretation: Elevated blood pressure may contribute to kidney dysfunction.

• Creatinine Blood Test:

  • Procedure: Measures creatinine levels in the blood.
  • Normal Range: 0.84 to 1.21 mg/dL for adult males, and 0.66 to 1.06 mg/dL for adult females.
  • Indications: Assessing kidney function.
  • Interpretation: Elevated levels may indicate impaired kidney function.

• Urinalysis:

  • Procedure: Examination of a urine sample for abnormalities.
  • Normal Result: Absence of protein, blood, or other signs of kidney problems.
  • Indications: Screening for kidney disease or assessing urinary tract issues.
  • Interpretation: Abnormalities may indicate kidney dysfunction or urinary tract conditions.